Tbilisi

Tbilisi თბილისი Tiflis
Capital city
Old Tbilisi and the Narikala Fortress at dusk Freedom Square Sioni Cathedral, Bridge of Peace, and Sameba. Old Town as viewed from Metekhi
Flag Seal
Tbilisi highlighted in Georgia
Tbilisi Tbilisi
Coordinates: 41°43′21″N 44°47′33″E
Country	Georgia
Established	AD 455
Government
• Type	Mayor–Council
• Body	Tbilisi Sakrebulo
• Mayor	Kakha Kaladze (GD)
Area
• Capital city	504.2 km2 (194.7 sq mi)
• Metro	726 km2 (280 sq mi)
Highest elevation	770 m (2,530 ft)
Lowest elevation	380 m (1,250 ft)
Population  (2024)
• Capital city	1,258,526
• Density	2,496.08/km2 (6,464.8/sq mi)
• Metro	1,485,293
Demonym(s)	Tbilisian Tbiliseli (In Georgian)
Population by ethnicity
• Georgians	89.9%
• Armenians	4.8%
• Azerbaijanis	1.4%
• Russians	1.2%
• Yazidis	1.0%
• Others	1.7%
GDP
• Capital city	₾ 37.060 billion (US$ 14.131 billion) · 1st
• Per capita	₾29,447 (US$11,228) · 1st
Time zone	UTC+4 (Georgian Time)
Area code	+995 32
ISO 3166 code	GE-TB
HDI (2024)	0.837
Website	tbilisi.gov.ge

Tbilisi (English: /təbɪˈliːsi, təˈbɪlɪsi/ ^ⓘ tə-bil-EE-see, tə-BIL-iss-ee; Georgian: თბილისი, pronounced [ˈtʰbilisi] ^ⓘ), in some languages still known by its pre-1936 name Tiflis (/ˈtɪflɪs/ ^ⓘ TIF-liss), (Georgian: ტფილისი, romanized: t'pilisi [tʼpʰilisi]) is the capital and largest city of Georgia, lying on the banks of the Kura River. With around 1.2 million inhabitants, it contains almost one third of the country's population. Tbilisi was founded in the fifth century AD by Vakhtang I of Iberia and has since served as the capital of various Georgian kingdoms and republics. Between 1801 and 1917, then part of the Russian Empire, it was the seat of the Caucasus Viceroyalty, governing both the northern and the southern sides of the Caucasus.

Because of its location at the crossroads between Europe and Asia, and its proximity to the lucrative Silk Road, throughout history, Tbilisi has been a point of contention among various global powers. To this day, the city's location ensures its position as an important transit route for energy and trade projects. Tbilisi's history is reflected in its architecture, which is a mix of medieval, neoclassical, Beaux Arts, Art Nouveau, Stalinist, and Modern structures.

Historically, Tbilisi has been home to people of diverse cultural, ethnic, and religious backgrounds, though its population is overwhelmingly Eastern Orthodox Christian. Notable tourist destinations include cathedrals Sameba and Sioni, Freedom Square, Rustaveli Avenue and Aghmashenebeli Avenue, medieval Narikala Fortress, the pseudo-Moorish Opera Theater, and the Georgian National Museum. The climate in Tbilisi mostly ranges from 20 to 32 °C (68 to 90 °F) in summer and −1 to 7 °C (30 to 45 °F) in winter.

Names and etymology

See also: Names of Tbilisi in different languages

The name "Tbilisi" derives from Old Georgian Tbilisi (Asomtavruli: ႧႡႨႪႨႱႨ, Mkhedruli: თბილისი), and further from tpili (Modern Georgian: თბილი, warm, itself from Old Georgian: ႲႴႨႪႨ ṭpili). The name Tbilisi (the place of warmth) was therefore given to the city because of the area's numerous sulfuric hot springs.

Until 1936, the name of the city in English and most other languages followed the Persian pronunciation Tiflis, while the Georgian name was ტფილისი (Ṭpilisi).

On 17 August 1936, by order of the Soviet leadership, the official Russian names of various cities were changed to more closely match the local language. In addition, the Georgian-language form Ṭpilisi was modernized on the basis of a proposal by Georgian linguists; the ancient Georgian component ტფილი (ṭpili, 'warm') was replaced by the newer თბილი (tbili). That form was the basis for the new official Russian name (Тбилиси Tbilisi). Most other languages have subsequently adopted the new name form, but some languages, such as Turkish, Persian, Greek, Spanish, and German, have retained a variation of Tiflis.

On 20 September 2006, the Georgian parliament held a ceremony celebrating the 70th anniversary of the renaming.

Some of the traditional names of Tbilisi in other languages of the region have different roots. The Ossetian name Калак (Kalak) derives from the Georgian word ქალაქი (kalaki) meaning simply city. Chechen and Ingush names for the city use a form similar to or the same as their names for the country of Georgia (Гуьржех Gürƶex) as does the historical Kabardian name (Курджы Kwrdžə), while Abkhaz Қарҭ (Ķarţ) is from the Mingrelian ქართი (Karti).

History

Main articles: History of Tbilisi and Timeline of Tbilisi

Anchiskhati Basilica, a 6th century monument, is the oldest surviving church in Tbilisi

Historical affiliations

• Kingdom of Iberia 450s–530s
• Sasanian Empire (Sasanian Iberia) 530s–570s
• Principality of Iberia 570s–730s
• Emirate of Tbilisi 730s–1122
• Kingdom of Georgia 1122–1490
• Kingdom of Kartli 1490–1762
• Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti 1762–1801
• Russian Empire 1801–1917
• Russian Republic 1917
• Transcaucasian Commissariat 1917–1918
• Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic 1918
• Democratic Republic of Georgia 1918–1921
• Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic 1921–1922
• Union of Soviet Socialist Republics 1922–1991
• Georgia 1991–present

Early history

Archaeologists discovered evidence of continuous habitation of the Tbilisi suburb of Dighomi since the early Bronze Age, and stone artifacts dating to the Paleolithic age.

During the late Bronze Age to early Iron Age, it was the largest settlement in the Caucasus. According to legend, the present-day territory of Tbilisi was covered by forests as late as 458. One widely accepted variant of the Tbilisi foundation myth states that King Vakhtang I of Iberia (r. c. 447/49 – 502/22) went hunting in the heavily wooded region with a falcon (sometimes the falcon is replaced with either a hawk or other small birds of prey in the legend). The king's falcon allegedly caught or injured a pheasant during the hunt, after which both birds fell into a nearby hot spring and died from burns. King Vakhtang became so impressed with the hot springs that he decided to clear the forest and build a city on the location.

King Dachi of Iberia (r. 522–534), the successor of Vakhtang I, moved the capital of Iberia from Mtskheta to Tbilisi and began construction of the fortress wall that lined the city's new boundaries. From the sixth century, Tbilisi grew at a steady pace due to the region's strategic location along with important trade and travel routes between Europe and Asia.

Foreign domination

Tbilisi's favorable trade location, however, did not necessarily bode well for its survival. Located strategically in the heart of the Caucasus between Europe and Asia, Tbilisi became an object of rivalry among the region's various powers such as the Roman Empire, Parthia, Sassanid Persia, Muslim Arabs, the Byzantine Empire, and the Seljuk Turks. The cultural development of the city was somewhat dependent on who ruled the city at various times, although Tbilisi was fairly cosmopolitan.

From 570 to 580, the Persians ruled the city until 627, when Tbilisi was sacked by the Byzantine/Khazar armies and later, in 736–738, Arab armies entered the town under Marwan II. After this point, the Arabs established an emirate centered in Tbilisi. Arabic dirhams were brought to Georgia following the Arab conquest in the seventh century, and a mint was founded in Tbilisi that produced coins with inscriptions in both Arabic and Georgian. In 764, Tbilisi – still under Arab control – was once again sacked by the Khazars. In 853, the armies of Arab leader Bugha Al-Turki invaded Tbilisi in order to enforce its return to Abbasid allegiance. The Arab domination of Tbilisi continued until about 1050. In 1065, the Seljuk Sultan Alp Arslan campaigned against the Kingdom of Georgia, subjugated Tbilisi, and built a mosque in the city.

Capital of Georgia

In 1121, after the Battle of Didgori against the Seljuks, the troops of King David IV of Georgia besieged Tbilisi, taking it in 1122. David moved his residence from Kutaisi to Tbilisi, making it the capital of a unified Georgian State, thus inaugurating the Georgian Golden Age. From the 12–13th centuries, Tbilisi became a regional power with a thriving economy and astonishing cultural output. By the end of the 12th century, the population of Tbilisi had reached 100,000. The city also became an important literary and cultural center, not only for Georgia, but also for the Eastern Orthodox world of the time. During Queen Tamar's reign, Shota Rustaveli worked in Tbilisi while writing his legendary epic poem The Knight in the Panther's Skin. This period is often referred to as "Georgia's Golden Age" or the Georgian Renaissance.

Mongol domination and other instability

Detail from the Nautical chart by Angelino Dulcert, depicting Georgian Black Sea coast and Tiflis, 1339

Tbilisi's "Golden Age" did not last for more than a century. In 1226, Tbilisi was captured by the Khwarezmian Empire under Shah Jalal al-Din, who massacred tens of thousands of Christians. The Khwarezmian occupation left Tbilisi's defenses severely devastated and prone to further attacks by Mongol armies. In 1236, after suffering crushing Mongol defeats, Georgia submitted to Mongol domination. The nation itself maintained a form of "semi-independence" and did not lose its statehood, but Tbilisi would be strongly influenced by the Mongols for the next century, both politically and culturally. In the 1320s, the Mongols retreated from Georgia, and Tbilisi became the capital of an independent Georgian state, once again. However, an outbreak of the Black Death struck the city in 1366.

Between the late 14th century and the late 18th century, Tbilisi would again be under the rule of various foreign powers. On several occasions, the city would even be completely burned and razed to the ground. In 1386, Tbilisi was invaded and sacked several times by the armies of Tamerlane. In 1440, the city was invaded and destroyed by Jahan Shah (the Shah of the town of Tabriz, Persia). From 1477 to 1478, the city was held by the Ak Koyunlu tribesmen of Uzun Hassan.

Iranian control

See also: Safavid Georgia

Tbilisi according to French traveler Jean Chardin, 1671

A 1717 illustration of Teflis by Joseph Pitton de Tournefort

As early as the 1510s, Tbilisi (and the kingdoms of Kartli and Kakheti) were made vassal territories of Safavid Iran. In 1522, Tbilisi was garrisoned for the first time by a large Safavid force. Following the death of king (shah) Ismail I (r. 1501–1524), king David X of Kartli expelled the Iranians. During this period, many parts of Tbilisi were reconstructed and rebuilt. The four campaigns of the king Tahmasp I (r. 1524–1576) resulted in the reoccupation of Kartli and Kakheti, and a Safavid force was permanently stationed in Tbilisi from 1551 onwards. With the 1555 Treaty of Amasya, and more firmly from 1614 to 1747, with brief intermissions, Tbilisi was an important city under Iranian rule, and it functioned as a seat of the Iranian vassal kings of Kartli whom the shah conferred with the title of vali. In 1718, the Venetian senate implored the Safavid emperor Soltan Hoseyn to protect the Catholic Armenians and Capuchin missionaries in Tbilisi from the Gregorian Armenians. Under the later rules of Teimuraz II and Heraclius II, Tbilisi became a vibrant political and cultural center free of foreign rule—but, fearful of the constant threat of invasion, Georgia's rulers sought Russian protection in the 1783 Treaty of Georgievsk. Despite this agreement, the city was captured and devastated in 1795 by the Iranian Qajar ruler Agha Mohammad Khan, who sought to re-establish Iran's traditional sovereignty over the region.

Russian control

See also: Georgia within the Russian Empire

The coat of arms of Tiflis under Russian rule

In 1801, the Russian Empire annexed the Georgian Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti (of which Tbilisi was the capital), later cementing its rule with the Treaty of Gulistan of 1813, which ended Iranian control of Georgia. Within Tsarist Russia, Tbilisi (known then as Tiflis) was included within the Tiflis Uyezd county in 1801, and became the administrative center of the Tiflis Governorate (Gubernia) following the latter's establishment in 1846. Russian Imperial administrators implemented a new European-style city plan and commissioned new buildings in Western styles. Roads and railroads were built to connect Tbilisi to other important cities in the Russian Empire, such as Batumi and Poti. By the 1850s, Tbilisi once again emerged as a major trade and cultural center, with many foreign, including Western European, entrepreneurs operating under Russian oversight.

The likes of Ilia Chavchavadze, Akaki Tsereteli, Mirza Fatali Akhundzade, Iakob Gogebashvili, Alexander Griboyedov and many other statesmen, poets and artists all found their home in Tbilisi. The city was visited on numerous occasions by and was the object of affection of Alexander Pushkin, Leo Tolstoy, Mikhail Lermontov, the Romanov family and others. The main new artery built under Russian administration was Golovin Avenue (present-day Rustaveli Avenue), on which the Viceroys of the Caucasus established their residence. For much of the early 19th century, Tbilisi's largest ethnic group was Armenian, at some point forming 74.3% of the population.

• 
  "Dry Bridge", constructed by Italian architect Antonio Scudieri
• 
  View on Golovin Avenue as seen from the site of present-day Freedom Square
• 
  Building of the Tbilisi City Hall
• 
  Grand Hotel "Kavkaz" in central Tbilisi, c 1900
• 
  Building of the Art Museum of Georgia, built at the end of the 1830s, photo ca. 1900
• 
  Tatar bazaar and with the Metekhi Orthodox church seen on the cliff
• 
  Alexander Nevsky Cathedral, demolished by the Soviets to make way for the present Parliament building

Tiflis by Mikhail Lermontov, 1837

Brief independence

After the Russian Revolution of 1917, the city served as a location of the Transcaucasus interim government which established, in the spring of 1918, the short-lived independent Transcaucasian Federation with the capital in Tbilisi. At this time, Tbilisi had roughly the same number of Armenians as Georgians, with Russians being the third largest ethnic group. It was in the former Viceroy of the Caucasus's palace where the independence of three Transcaucasus nations – Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan – was declared by their respective national councils on 26 to 28 May 1918. After this, Tbilisi functioned as the capital of the Democratic Republic of Georgia until 25 February 1921. From 1918 to 1919, the city also consecutively served as the headquarters of the country's German garrison and later the British 27th Division; Tbilisi was also the main office of the British Chief Commissioner in Transcaucasia, Oliver Wardrop and the High Commissioner to Armenia, Colonel William N. Haskell.

Under the national government, Tbilisi turned into the first Caucasian University City after the Tbilisi State University was founded in 1918. On 25 February 1921, the Bolshevist Russian 11th Red Army invaded Tbilisi and after bitter fighting at the outskirts of the city, declared Soviet rule.

Soviet rule

The Red Army entered Tbilisi on 25 February 1921

In 1921, the Democratic Republic of Georgia was occupied by the Soviet Bolshevik forces from Russia, and until 1936, Tbilisi functioned first as the capital city of the Transcaucasian SFSR (which included Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia), and afterward until 1991 as the capital of the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic. During Soviet rule, Tbilisi's population grew significantly, the city became more industrialized, and it also came to be an important political, social, and cultural centre of the Soviet Union. In 1980, the city hosted the first state-sanctioned rock festival in the USSR. As a major tourist destination for both Soviet citizens and foreign visitors, Tbilisi's "Old Town" (the neighborhoods within the original city walls) was reconstructed in the 1970s and 1980s.

Tbilisi witnessed mass anti-Russian demonstrations during 1956 in the 9 March Massacre, in protest against the anti-Stalin policies of Nikita Khrushchev. Peaceful protests occurred in 1978, and in 1989 the April 9 tragedy was a peaceful protest that turned violent.

Post-independence

Since the break-up of the Soviet Union, Tbilisi has experienced periods of significant instability and turmoil. After a brief civil war, which the city endured for two weeks from December 1991 to January 1992 (when pro-Gamsakhurdia and Opposition forces clashed), Tbilisi became the scene of frequent armed confrontations among various mafia clans and illegal business operators. During the Shevardnadze Era (1992–2003), crime and corruption were rampant. Many segments of society became impoverished because of unemployment caused by the crumbling economy. Average citizens of Tbilisi started to become increasingly disillusioned with the existing quality of life in the city (and in the nation in general). Mass protests took place in November 2003 after falsified parliamentary elections forced more than 100,000 people into the streets and concluded with the Rose Revolution. Since 2003, Tbilisi has experienced considerably more stability with decreasing crime rates, an improved economy, and a real estate boom. During the 2008 South Ossetia war, the Tbilisi area was hit by multiple Russian air attacks.

After the war, several large-scale projects were started, including a streetcar system, a railway bypass and a relocation of the central station, and new urban highways. In June 2015, a flood killed at least twenty people and caused animals from the city's zoo to be released into the streets.

Politics and administration

City Council building overlooking Freedom Square

See also: List of mayors of Tbilisi and Tbilisi City Assembly

The status of Tbilisi, as the nation's capital, is defined by Article 10 of the Constitution of Georgia (1995) and the Law on Georgia's Capital – Tbilisi (20 February 1998).

Tbilisi is governed by the Tbilisi City Assembly (Sakrebulo) and the Tbilisi City Hall (Meria). The City Assembly and mayor are elected once every four years by direct elections. The Mayor of Tbilisi is Kakha Kaladze and the Chairman of the Tbilisi city Assembly is Giorgi Alibegashvili.

A police station on Agmashenebeli Avenue

Administratively, the city is divided into raions (districts), which have their own units of central and local government with jurisdiction over a limited scope of affairs. This subdivision was established under Soviet rule in the 1930s, following the general subdivision of the Soviet Union. After Georgia regained independence, the raion system was modified and reshuffled. According to the latest revision, Tbilisi raions include:

• Mtatsminda District, including neighborhoods: Mtatsminda, Sololaki, Vera, Kiketi, Kojori, Shindisi, Tsavkisi, Tabakhmela, Okrokana
• Vake District, including neighborhoods: Vake, Bagebi, Upper Saburtalo, Nutsubidze Plateau, Tskneti
• Saburtalo District, including neighborhoods: Lower Saburtalo, Vedzisi, Vashlijvari, Didi Dighomi, Patara Dighomi, Zurgovana
• Krtsanisi District, including neighborhoods: Abanotubani, Kala, Ortachala, Ponichala
• Isani District, including neighborhoods: Avlabari, Isani, Navtlughi, Metromsheni, Vazisubani
• Samgori District, including neighborhoods: Varketili, Orkhevi, Dampalo, Lilo, Lower Samgori, Africa
• Chughureti District, including neighborhoods: Chughureti, Ivertubani, Kukia, Svanetisubani
• Didube District, including neighborhoods: Didube, Dighomi Massive
• Nadzaladevi District, including neighborhoods: Nadzaladevi, Sanzona, Temka, Lotkini
• Gldani District, including neighborhoods: Gldani, Avchala, Mukhiani, Gldanula

Overview of Tbilisi districts
District Name	Population (2017)	Area ( Km2)
Mtatsminda District	49,052	73
Vake District	111,903	61.7
Saburtalo District	138,493	75.5
Krtsanisi District	39,286	31.7
Isani District	125,610	16.7
Samgori District	177,844	128.4
Chughureti District	65,230	14.3
Didube District	70,018	8.4
Nadzaladevi District	154,067	42
Gldani District	177,214	50.3
City of Tbilisi	1,108,717	502
Source: Geostat, Tbilisi City Hall

Most of the raions are named after historic quarters of the city. The citizens of Tbilisi widely recognize an informal system of smaller historic neighborhoods. Such neighborhoods are several, however, constituting a kind of hierarchy, because most of them have lost their distinctive topographic limits. The natural first level of subdivision of the city is into the right and left banks of the Mtkvari river.

The names of the oldest neighborhoods go back to the early Middle Ages and sometimes pose a great linguistic interest. The newest whole-built developments bear chiefly residential marketing names.

In 19th-century Tbilisi, the Georgian quarter was confined to the southeastern part of the city; Baedeker describes the layout succinctly:

In the north part of the town, on the left bank of the Kurá and to the south of the railway station, stretches the clean German Quarter, formerly occupied by German immigrants from Württemberg (1818). To the south is the Gruzinian or Georgian Quarter (Avlabár). On the right bank of the Kurá is the Russian Quarter, the seat of the officials and of the larger business firms. This is adjoined on the south by the Armenian and Persian Bazaars.

— Karl Baedeker, Russia: A Handbook for Travelers

Geography

Tbilisi, especially Old Town, has a complex terrain, with hills and cliffs.

The National Botanical Garden of Georgia in Tbilisi is concealed from view as it resides among the hills of the Sololaki Range.

Location

Tbilisi is located in the South Caucasus at 41° 43' North and 44° 47' East. The city lies in Eastern Georgia on both banks of the Kura River (locally known as Mtkvari). The elevation of the city ranges from 380–770 metres above sea level (1,250–2,530 ft) and has the shape of an amphitheatre surrounded by mountains on three sides. To the north, Tbilisi is bounded by the Saguramo Range, to the east and south-east by the Iori Plain, to the south and west by various endings (subranges) of the Trialeti Range.

The relief of Tbilisi is complex. The part of the city which lies on the left bank of the Kura River extends for more than 30 km (19 mi) from the Avchala District to River Lochini. The part of the city which lies on the right side of the river, though, is built along the foothills of the Trialeti Range, the slopes of which in many cases descend all the way to the edges of the river. The mountains, therefore, are a significant barrier to urban development on its right bank. This type of a geographic environment creates pockets of very densely developed areas, while other parts of the city are left undeveloped due to the complex topographic relief.

To the north of the city, a large reservoir (commonly known as the Tbilisi Sea) is fed by irrigation canals.

Climate

Tbilisi Sea, the city's largest body of water located in the suburbs.

Tbilisi has a humid temperate climate (Köppen: Cfa, Trewartha: Do) with considerable continental and semi-arid influences. The city experiences hot, humid summers and moderately cold dry winters. Like other regions of Georgia, Tbilisi receives significant rainfall throughout the year with no distinct dry period. The city's climate is influenced both by dry (Central Asian/Siberian) air masses from the east and oceanic (Atlantic/Black Sea) air masses from the west. Because the city is bounded on most sides by mountain ranges, the close proximity to large bodies of water (Black and Caspian Seas) and the fact that the Greater Caucasus Mountains Range (further to the north) blocks the intrusion of cold air masses from Russia, Tbilisi has a relatively mild microclimate compared to other cities that possess a similar climate along the same latitudes.

The average annual temperature in Tbilisi is 13.8 °C (56.8 °F). January is the coldest month with an average temperature of 2.7 °C (36.9 °F). July is the hottest month with an average temperature of 25.4 °C (77.7 °F). Daytime high temperatures reach or exceed 32 °C (90 °F) on an average of 22 days during a typical year. The absolute minimum recorded temperature is −24.4 °C (−11.9 °F) in January 1883 and the absolute maximum is 42.0 °C (107.6 °F) on 17 July 1882. Average annual precipitation is 511.5 mm (20.1 in). May is the wettest month (averaging 84.0 mm (3.3 in) of precipitation) while January is the driest (averaging 16.4 mm (0.6 in) of precipitation). Snow falls on average 15–25 days per year. The surrounding mountains often trap the clouds within and around the city, mainly during the Spring and Autumn months, resulting in prolonged rainy and/or cloudy weather. Northwesterly winds dominate in most parts of Tbilisi throughout the year. Southeasterly winds are common as well.

Climate data for Tbilisi (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1881–present)
Month	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Year
Record high °C (°F)	19.5 (67.1)	22.4 (72.3)	29.0 (84.2)	34.4 (93.9)	37.0 (98.6)	38.7 (101.7)	42.0 (107.6)	40.4 (104.7)	37.9 (100.2)	33.3 (91.9)	27.2 (81.0)	22.8 (73.0)	40.5 (104.9)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F)	6.9 (44.4)	8.4 (47.1)	13.2 (55.8)	18.6 (65.5)	23.7 (74.7)	28.5 (83.3)	31.5 (88.7)	31.9 (89.4)	26.2 (79.2)	20.0 (68.0)	12.6 (54.7)	8.1 (46.6)	19.1 (66.5)
Daily mean °C (°F)	2.7 (36.9)	3.8 (38.8)	7.9 (46.2)	12.9 (55.2)	17.8 (64.0)	22.3 (72.1)	25.3 (77.5)	25.4 (77.7)	20.4 (68.7)	14.7 (58.5)	7.9 (46.2)	3.9 (39.0)	13.8 (56.7)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F)	−0.6 (30.9)	0.2 (32.4)	4.0 (39.2)	8.4 (47.1)	13.2 (55.8)	17.3 (63.1)	20.4 (68.7)	20.3 (68.5)	15.9 (60.6)	11.0 (51.8)	4.7 (40.5)	1.2 (34.2)	9.7 (49.4)
Record low °C (°F)	−24.4 (−11.9)	−18.8 (−1.8)	−12.8 (9.0)	−5.0 (23.0)	1.0 (33.8)	2.0 (35.6)	9.3 (48.7)	8.9 (48.0)	3.1 (37.6)	−6.4 (20.5)	−16 (3)	−20.5 (−4.9)	−24.4 (−11.9)
Average precipitation mm (inches)	16.4 (0.65)	18.2 (0.72)	29.1 (1.15)	63.8 (2.51)	82.9 (3.26)	84.0 (3.31)	41.6 (1.64)	39.4 (1.55)	34.8 (1.37)	46.3 (1.82)	34.2 (1.35)	20.8 (0.82)	511.5 (20.15)
Average snowfall cm (inches)	7.1 (2.8)	5.5 (2.2)	7.2 (2.8)	1.3 (0.5)	0.0 (0.0)	0.0 (0.0)	0.0 (0.0)	0.0 (0.0)	0.0 (0.0)	0.6 (0.2)	1.6 (0.6)	2.2 (0.9)	25.5 (10)
Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm)	3.7	4.3	5.1	8.7	10.4	8.3	5.7	4.6	4.9	6.0	5.3	4.4	71.4
Average rainy days	4	4	8	12	12	10	7	8	9	10	10	6	100
Average snowy days	6	8	3	0.1	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	1	4	22
Average relative humidity (%)	75.3	73	68.6	69	69.7	65.6	63.1	63.3	69	76.1	78.4	78.2	70.8
Mean monthly sunshine hours	99	102	142	171	213	249	256	248	206	164	103	93	2,046
Mean daily daylight hours	9.6	10.6	12	13.4	14.5	15.2	14.9	13.8	12.5	11.1	9.8	9.2	12.2
Percentage possible sunshine	34	34	39	43	47	54	55	58	55	48	35	32	45
Average ultraviolet index	3	4	7	8	10	11	10	9	8	6	3	2	7
Source 1: Pogoda.ru.net NOAA(humidity, precipitation and days with precip)(Sunshine hours 1961–1990)
Source 2: Weather Atlas(snowfall-daylight), Nomadseaon(daily maximum UV 2022-2023)

Climate data for Tbilisi Airport (1981–2010)
Month	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Year
Record high °C (°F)	16.9 (62.4)	20.8 (69.4)	26.3 (79.3)	34.3 (93.7)	33.1 (91.6)	38.2 (100.8)	39.4 (102.9)	40.2 (104.4)	37.4 (99.3)	32.2 (90.0)	24.7 (76.5)	19.9 (67.8)	40.2 (104.4)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F)	6.6 (43.9)	7.6 (45.7)	12.3 (54.1)	18.6 (65.5)	22.8 (73.0)	27.7 (81.9)	31.1 (88.0)	30.9 (87.6)	26.1 (79.0)	19.4 (66.9)	12.4 (54.3)	7.6 (45.7)	18.7 (65.7)
Daily mean °C (°F)	1.3 (34.3)	2.7 (36.9)	6.8 (44.2)	12.6 (54.7)	17.0 (62.6)	21.5 (70.7)	24.5 (76.1)	23.9 (75.0)	19.5 (67.1)	13.2 (55.8)	7.7 (45.9)	3.3 (37.9)	12.8 (55.0)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F)	−1.0 (30.2)	−0.7 (30.7)	2.8 (37.0)	8.0 (46.4)	12.4 (54.3)	16.6 (61.9)	20.0 (68.0)	19.7 (67.5)	15.7 (60.3)	10.4 (50.7)	4.6 (40.3)	0.4 (32.7)	9.1 (48.4)
Record low °C (°F)	−24.1 (−11.4)	−13.1 (8.4)	−8.0 (17.6)	−2.4 (27.7)	2.2 (36.0)	8.3 (46.9)	13.0 (55.4)	12.1 (53.8)	5.5 (41.9)	−0.7 (30.7)	−6.4 (20.5)	−10.9 (12.4)	−24.1 (−11.4)
Average precipitation mm (inches)	20.2 (0.80)	26.5 (1.04)	32.8 (1.29)	56.4 (2.22)	86.2 (3.39)	72.1 (2.84)	48.2 (1.90)	43.8 (1.72)	42.7 (1.68)	42.7 (1.68)	35.2 (1.39)	25.0 (0.98)	531.6 (20.93)
Source: NCEI

Demographics

Population

See also: Armenians in Tbilisi and Tbilisoba

Demographics

Main ethnic groups of Tbilisi

Year	Georgians	%	Armenians	%	Russians	%	Total
1780	50,000	66.7%	10,000	13.3%	–	–	75,000
1790	44,000	61.1%	12,000	16.7%	–	–	72,000
1801-3	4,300	21.5%	14,860	74.3%	–	–	20,000
1864/65 winter	14,878	24.8%	28,404	47.3%	12,462	20.7%	60,085
1864/65 summer	14,787	20.8%	31,180	43.9%	12,142	17.1%	71,051
1876	22,156	21.3%	37,610	36.1%	30,813	29.6%	104,024

Year	Kartvelian speakers	%	Armenian speakers	%	Russian speakers	%	Total population
1897	42,206	26.4%	47,133	29.5%	44,823	28.1%	159,590
1916	37,584	10.8%	149,294	43.1%	91,997	26.5%	346,766
1926	112,014	38.1%	100,148	34.1%	45,937	15.6%	294,044
1939	228,394	44%	137,331	26.4%	93,337	18%	519,220
1959	336,257	48.4%	149,258	21.5%	125,674	18.1%	694,664
1970	511,379	57.5%	150,205	16.9%	124,316	14%	889,020
1979	653,242	62.1%	152,767	14.5%	129,122	12.3%	1,052,734
1989	824,412	66.1%	150,138	12.0%	124,867	10.0%	1,246,936
2002	910,712	84.2%	82,586	7.6%	32,580	3.0%	1,081,679
2014	996,804	89.9%	53,409	4.8%	13,350	1.2%	1,108,717

As a multiethnic city, Tbilisi is home to more than 100 ethnic groups. Around 90% of the population consists of ethnic Georgians, with significant populations of Armenians, Russians, and Azerbaijanis. Along with the above-mentioned groups, Tbilisi is home to other ethnic groups including Ossetians, Abkhazians, Ukrainians, Greeks, Jews, Assyrians, Yazidis, and others.

Tbilisi is home to other ethnic groups including Ossetians, Abkhazians, Ukrainians, Greeks, Jews, Assyrians, Yazidis, and others.

Religion

Sameba Cathedral

More than 95% of the residents of Tbilisi practise some form of Christianity, the majority being followers of the Georgian Orthodox Church. The Russian Orthodox Church and the Armenian Apostolic Church also have significant communities in the city. About 1.5% of the population identifies as Muslim, primarily of the Shia branch, while approximately 0.1% practise Judaism. The city is also home to a Roman Catholic community and a Yazidi minority, who worship at the Sultan Ezid Temple.

Sports

Preparations for the 2015 UEFA Super Cup at the Dinamo Arena in Tbilisi

Until the beginning of the 19th century, sports such as horse riding (polo in particular), wrestling, boxing, and marksmanship were the most popular city sports. Influence from the Russian Empire introduced more Western sports and activities (such as billiards and fencing) to Tbilisi.

The Soviet period further popularised European and American sports. Tbilisi developed an extensive infrastructure for professional sports, and by 1978, the city had around 250 sports facilities, including four indoor and six outdoor Olympic-sized pools, 185 basketball courts, 192 volleyball facilities, 82 handball arenas, 19 tennis courts, 31 football fields, and five stadiums. The largest stadium is the Dinamo Arena (capacity 55,000), followed by the Mikheil Meskhi Stadium (capacity 24,680). The Sports Palace hosts basketball games and tennis tournaments, with a seating capacity of about 11,000. Vere Basketball Hall is a smaller indoor sports arena seating 2,500.

Football is the most popular sport in Tbilisi, followed by rugby union and basketball. Other popular sports include wrestling, tennis, swimming, and water polo.

Tbilisi has several professional football and rugby teams, as well as wrestling clubs. Two U.S. National Basketball Association players, Zaza Pachulia and Nikoloz Tskitishvili, are Tbilisi natives.

Tbilisi's signature football club, Dinamo Tbilisi, won the 1980–81 European Cup Winners' Cup, becoming the easternmost team to win a major European football tournament. The basketball club Dinamo Tbilisi also won the 1962 EuroLeague title.

Tbilisi co-hosted Group A matches of the EuroBasket 2022 tournament at the new 10,000-seat Tbilisi Arena, along with Czech Republic (Prague), Germany (Berlin, Cologne), and Italy (Milan).

Club	Sport	Stadium
Lelo Saracens	Rugby Union	Lelo Sport Centre
RC Armazi Tbilisi	Rugby Union	Shevardeni Stadium
RC Locomotive Tbilisi	Rugby Union	Avchala Stadium
RC Army Tbilisi	Rugby Union	Avchala Stadium
FC Dinamo Tbilisi	Football	Boris Paichadze Stadium
FC Lokomotivi Tbilisi	Football	Mikheil Meskhi Stadium
FC Saburtalo Tbilisi	Football	Bendela Stadium
FC WIT Georgia	Football	Mikheil Meskhi Stadium #2
BC Dinamo Tbilisi	Basketball	Tbilisi Sports Palace
BC TSU Tbilisi	Basketball	Tbilisi Sports Palace
BC MIA Academy	Basketball	Tbilisi Sports Palace
BC Armia	Basketball	Tbilisi Sports Palace
Maccabi Brinkford Tbilisi	Basketball	Tbilisi Sports Palace
B.C. VITA Tbilisi	Basketball	Tbilisi Sports Palace

Media

The majority of Georgia's media companies (including television, newspapers, and radio) are headquartered in Tbilisi. The city is home to major television channels such as Rustavi 2, Imedi, TV Pirveli, Mtavari Arkhi, Formula, Maestro, and the Public Broadcasting Channel, among others.

Since 2019, Tbilisi's television market has undergone notable changes, particularly following ownership changes at Rustavi 2, which led to the creation of new television channels like Mtavari Arkhi and TV Formula.

Tbilisi has numerous newspaper publishing houses. Prominent newspapers include the daily 24 Saati ("24 Hours"), Rezonansi ("Resonance"), Alia, the English-language daily The Messenger, weekly publications like FINANCIAL, Georgia Today, and The Georgian Times.

The city hosts many influential radio stations, including:

• Imedi Radio (105.9 FM)
• Fortuna (106.9 FM)
• Radio 105 (105.0 FM)

Other radio stations operating in Tbilisi include:

• 5 Lines Radio (93.8 FM)
• Europe +Tbilisi (99.6 FM)
• Georgian Patriarchy Radio (105.4 FM)

Culture

Architecture

The architecture of Tbilisi is a blend of Georgian, Byzantine, Neoclassical, Art Nouveau, Beaux-Arts, Middle Eastern, and Soviet modern influences. Few buildings survived the 1795 destruction of the city, so most historic structures date to the Russian Imperial period (1801–1917).

Tbilisi's old quarters (Kala, Abanotubani, Avlabari) were largely rebuilt following their medieval street plans. Downtown areas developed by Russian authorities, like Sololaki, Rustaveli Avenue, and Vera, show a European-style layout with Beaux-Arts, Orientalist, and revivalist architecture.

Tbilisi is particularly noted for its Art Nouveau buildings, especially in Sololaki and Chughureti, which flourished from the 1890s until the early Soviet era. Stalinist architecture, such as the 1938 Marx-Engels-Lenin Institute building (now the Biltmore Hotel Tbilisi), also left a mark on the city's landscape.

Post-World War II architecture introduced mass housing blocks in neighborhoods like Saburtalo and Dighomi. Notable Soviet-era landmarks include the 1975 Ministry of Roads building and the 1984 Wedding Palace.

Since independence, Tbilisi has experienced both rapid skyscraper development (e.g., Axis Towers, Holiday Inn Tbilisi, King David Residences) and challenges with unregulated construction.

Rustaveli Theatre on Rustaveli Avenue

Cafés in Old Tbilisi

Art museums and galleries

Tbilisi is home to several important museums and art spaces:

• The Georgian National Museum network, including the Art Museum of Georgia.
• The Museum of Modern Art, opened in 2012.
• Contemporary art centers like Kunsthalle Tbilisi and Open Space of Experimental Art.

Other cultural institutions include the Giorgi Leonidze State Museum of Literature and the Writer's House of Georgia.

Performing arts

Tbilisi hosts major cultural institutions such as:

• Tbilisi State Conservatoire
• Tbilisi Opera and Ballet Theatre
• Shota Rustaveli State Academic Theatre
• Marjanishvili State Academic Theatre
• Rezo Gabriadze Marionette Theater
• Royal District Theatre

Tbilisi Opera and Ballet Theatre

Film Festival

The Tbilisi International Film Festival (TIFF) is organized annually by the Cinema Art Center Prometheus. It began in 2000 as part of a larger "Gift" festival, then became an independent event in 2002. The main venue is located at 164 Agmashenebeli Avenue.

World Book Capital

Tbilisi was designated as World Book Capital for 2021 by UNESCO, recognizing the city's efforts to promote books and reading.

Tourism

Main article: List of museums in Tbilisi

Georgia's rising popularity as a travel destination has positioned Tbilisi as a major regional tourism hub. In 2019, the country welcomed over 9 million international visitors, significantly boosting Tbilisi’s hospitality and service sectors.

The city is renowned for its:

• Historic neighborhoods blending medieval, Art Deco, Eastern, and Soviet architecture.
• Rich cultural scene, with national museums, galleries, theaters, and festivals.
• Traditional Georgian cuisine and vibrant restaurant culture.
• Status as a melting pot of various ethnicities and traditions.

Tbilisi is often praised as a "diverse metropolis" that offers a distinctive blend of the old and the new, Eastern and Western cultures.

Tbilisi Art Gallery

Main sights

Notable landmarks and attractions include:

• Narikala fortress (4th–17th century)
• Anchiskhati Basilica (6th century)
• Sioni Cathedral (8th century)
• Church of Metekhi
• Sameba Cathedral (Holy Trinity Cathedral of Tbilisi)
• Bridge of Peace
• Abanotubani sulfur baths
• Open Air Museum of Ethnography
• Tbilisi Old Town
• Parliament of Georgia
• Supreme Court of Georgia
• National Bank of Georgia
• Tbilisi Circus

During Soviet times, Tbilisi was ranked among the top cities for the number of museums within the USSR.

Abanotubani

Nightlife

Tbilisi has developed a thriving and internationally recognized nightlife scene since the 2010s. Notable clubs include:

• Bassiani
• Mtkvarze
• Khidi
• Café Gallery

These venues attract world-renowned DJs and have helped position Tbilisi on the global electronic music map. The city also hosts a growing underground queer nightlife scene, gaining international media attention.

Economy

High-rise residential and office buildings in Vake

With a nominal GDP of 32 billion Georgian lari (€10 billion) as of 2022, Tbilisi is Georgia’s economic powerhouse, generating more than half of the country’s total GDP. Its GDP per capita is 26,769 lari (€8,700), exceeding the national average by more than 50 percent.

The economy of Tbilisi is dominated by the service sector, particularly:

• Wholesale and retail trade
• Transport and logistics
• Financial services
• Hospitality and real estate

Reflecting its position as a regional hub, the city hosts the headquarters of most Georgian banks, major companies, and international organizations operating in the South Caucasus region.

The manufacturing sector, while contributing only around 12% to the local GDP, remains larger in absolute value than that of any other Georgian region, covering food processing, construction materials, and light industry.

The unemployment rate in Tbilisi stands at 22.5%, which is significantly higher than the national average.

Tbilisi’s diversified economy and relatively advanced infrastructure continue to attract investment from regional and international businesses, contributing to its growing role as a regional business center.

Transport

Tbilisi International Airport

Tbilisi's public transport system is managed by the Transport and Urban Development Agency. After years of prioritizing private vehicles, the city has invested heavily in developing a green, accessible, and extensive public transit network since the 2010s. Today, the city is served by an international airport, metro, national rail, municipal buses, minibuses, cabs, aerial tramways, bike lanes, and a funicular railway.

Airport

Main article: Tbilisi International Airport

Shota Rustaveli Tbilisi International Airport is the city's only international airport, located about 18 kilometres (11 miles) southeast of the city centre. Handling nearly 3 million passengers in 2022, it is the busiest airport in Georgia and a regional hub. It is a hub for Georgian Airways and other international carriers, offering direct flights to Europe, the Middle East, and Central Asia.

A secondary domestic airport at Natakhtari Airfield connects Tbilisi with Batumi, Mestia, and Ambrolauri.

Metro

Main article: Tbilisi Metro

Tbilisi Metro station

The Tbilisi Metro operates two lines — the Akhmeteli–Varketili Line and the Saburtalo Line — with 23 stations and around 400,000 daily rides. Opened in 1966, it was the fourth metro system in the former Soviet Union. The system is known for its depth and ornate station designs.

The metro is undergoing major upgrades, including full station renovations, better accessibility for people with disabilities, and new rolling stock acquisitions.

A third overground metro line connecting central Tbilisi to Tbilisi International Airport and Rustavi is under planning.

Rail

Tbilisi is the main hub of Georgian Railways, with inter-city trains connecting it to Batumi, Zugdidi, Poti, Kutaisi, and other cities from Tbilisi Central Railway Station.

Buses and Bus Rapid Transit

Tbilisi's municipal bus fleet

Tbilisi’s bus network forms the backbone of urban transit. A major reorganisation launched in 2020 introduced Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) corridors (TBT lines 300–310) served by articulated 18-metre-long buses, alongside more than 200 other city and local routes.

New environmentally friendly buses — including MAN Lion’s City CNG and ISUZU models — have replaced the ageing fleet since 2017.

Cycling

Cycling is gaining popularity, supported by a growing network of bike lanes. During the COVID-19 pandemic, temporary cycle lanes were introduced, increasing the city's cycling network to over 20 km. The long-term plan aims to expand it to 350 km.

Trams

Main article: Trams in Tbilisi

Tbilisi had an electric tram network from 1904 until 2006, when it was dismantled. Projects to reintroduce modern trams have been proposed but remain unrealized.

Minibuses

Private minibuses (marshrutkas) continue to supplement the bus network, although their share is gradually decreasing following municipal reforms. In 2019, a new tender introduced modern minibuses with stricter safety and comfort standards.

Aerial Tramways

Tbilisi operates three gondola lift systems:

• **Rike Park to Narikala Fortress** (opened 2012)
• **Vake Park to Turtle Lake** (reopened 2016)
• **State University to Bagebi** (reopened 2021)

The Soviet-era tram between Rustaveli Avenue and Mtatsminda was dismantled after the tragic 1990 Tbilisi aerial tramway accident, but reconstruction plans are underway.

Funicular

The Tbilisi Funicular, originally opened in 1905 and restored in 2012, connects Chonkadze Street to Mtatsminda Park at the highest point of the city. The line provides access to panoramic views, the Tbilisi TV Broadcasting Tower, and various recreational facilities.

Education

Public School Number 1 of Tbilisi, also known as the First Classical Gymnasium

Tbilisi is the principal centre of higher education in Georgia and the Caucasus region. It hosts many major universities and research institutions, drawing both local and international students.

The largest and oldest university in the Caucasus is Tbilisi State University (TSU), founded on 8 February 1918. TSU has about 25,000 students and more than 5,000 faculty and staff.

Other prominent public institutions include:

• Tbilisi State Medical University, the largest medical university in the Caucasus, established in 1918 as part of TSU and operating independently since 1992.
• Georgian Technical University, founded in 1922 as a polytechnic faculty and now the country’s leading technical university.
• Ilia State University, established in 2006 through the merger of six institutions.

Several private universities are also notable:

• The University of Georgia (Tbilisi), the largest private university with around 8,000 students.
• Caucasus University, founded in 2004, which evolved from the Caucasus School of Business (established in 1998).
• Free University of Tbilisi, established in 2007 through a merger of ESM-Tbilisi and the Tbilisi Institute of Asia and Africa.

Other significant institutions include:

• Tbilisi State Conservatory
• Shota Rustaveli Theatre and Film University
• Tbilisi State Academy of Arts
• Caucasus International University
• Tbilisi Medical Academy
• Georgian American University
• International Black Sea University
• Georgian Institute of Public Affairs
• Agricultural University of Georgia
• International School of Economics at TSU (ISET)
• New Vision University
• Grigol Robakidze University

Tbilisi State University, Building I

Public education at the primary and secondary levels is mandatory and free. Tbilisi has many public and private schools, offering instruction in Georgian as well as minority languages, including Russian, Armenian, Azerbaijani, and English.

The city also hosts various international schools catering to expatriate communities.

Expatriate community

Tbilisi is home to a growing expatriate population. The number of foreigners living and working in Tbilisi has increased significantly in recent years, supported by the opening of international schools, foreign businesses, expatriate organizations, and online communities.

The city is regarded as safe for foreigners and locals alike.

Most expatriates reside in neighborhoods such as Vake, Vera, Saburtalo, and Dighomi.

Prominent expatriate initiatives and communities include:

• **IWA (International Women's Association of Georgia):** A non-profit organization founded in 1996, composed of international and Georgian women, organizing charity events and networking activities.
• **Expats in Tbilisi:** An online support network initiated by UN and EU staff spouses to assist expatriates in finding resources and information.
• **InterNations Tbilisi:** Part of the global InterNations network, facilitating networking events, business meetups, and cultural exchange programs.

Remnants of ancient city walls discovered in central Tbilisi

International relations

Tbilisi Platz in Saarbrücken, Germany.

See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in Georgia (country)

Twin towns and sister cities

Tbilisi is twinned with:

Saarbrücken, Germany (1975) Nantes, France (1979) Ljubljana, Slovenia (1977) Innsbruck, Austria (1982) Atlanta, United States (1987) Palermo, Italy (1987) Bristol, United Kingdom (1988) Bilbao, Spain (1989) Yerevan, Armenia (1996) Kyiv, Ukraine (1999)

Astana, Kazakhstan (2005) Vilnius, Lithuania (2009) Chișinău, Moldova (2011) Cairo, Egypt (2012) Doha, Qatar (2012) Tehran, Iran (2015) Minsk, Belarus (2015) Istanbul, Turkey (2016) Sofia, Bulgaria (2016) Lima, Peru (2018) Baku, Azerbaijan (2021) Bucharest, Romania (2022)

Partnerships

Odesa, Ukraine (1996) Ankara, Turkey (1996) Baku, Azerbaijan (1997) Athens, Greece (1997) Paris, France (1997) Jerusalem, Israel (1998) Riga, Latvia (2007) Kraków, Poland (2009) Warsaw, Poland (2010)

Budapest, Hungary (2011) Kharkiv, Ukraine (2012) Lviv, Ukraine (2013) Lincoln, United States (2013) Guangzhou, China (2014) Lublin, Poland (2014) Dublin, Ireland (2014) Prague, Czech Republic

See also

• Abo Tbileli – the patron saint of Tbilisi
• Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline
• List of people from Tbilisi

References

Bibliography

• Abuladze, David; Kurtishvili, Irina (March 2016). Stiller, Adolph (ed.). Tiflis: Architektur am Schnittpunkt der Kontinente (in English and German). Salzburg: Muery Salzmann. ISBN 978-3990141366.
• Baulig, Josef; Maia Mania; Hans Mildenberg; Karl Ziegler (2004). Architekturführer Tbilisi (in German and Georgian). Landeshauptstadt Saarbrücken / Technische Universität Kaiserslautern. ISBN 978-3-936890-39-6.
• Floor, Willem M. (2008). Titles and Emoluments in Safavid Iran: A Third Manual of Safavid Administration, by Mirza Naqi Nasiri. Washington, DC: Mage Publishers. ISBN 978-1933823232.
• Kazemzadeh, Firuz (1991). "Iranian relations with Russia and the Soviet Union, to 1921". In Avery, Peter; Hambly, Gavin; Melville, Charles (eds.). The Cambridge History of Iran (Vol. 7). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521200950.
• Mikaberidze, Alexander (2015). Historical Dictionary of Georgia (2 ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1442241466.
• Rayfield, Donald (2013). Edge of Empires: A History of Georgia. Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1780230702.
• Salukvadze, Joseph; Golubchikov, Oleg (March 2016). "City as a geopolitics: Tbilisi, Georgia — A globalizing metropolis in a turbulent region". Cities. 52: 39–54. doi:10.1016/j.cities.2015.11.013.

Further reading

• Postcard from the Silk Road – Georgia, TRAVELS – ESPECIALLY FOR "ZNAD WILII", Leonard Drożdżewicz, "Znad Wilii", Viešoji įstaiga "Znad Wilii" kultūros plėtros draugija, ISSN 1392-9712, No. 1 (57), 2014, pp. 87–98. (in Polish) [2]
• Tbilisi's largely forgotten and neglected Armenian heritage

External links

• Official website of the City of Tbilisi